Chapter 5 : The Early Ching Period

 

Outline

        In 1683 (Kangsi Year 22, Ching dynasty), the Jheng government finally surrendered. The next year, the Ching Court ruled Taiwan as a prefecture containing three counties. Later on, other administrative districts¡Xsub-prefectures (ting) andcounties (xian) and departments (ting)¡Xwere added. For example, in 1727, there were two sub-prefectures and four counties in Taiwan Prefecture. However, the Ching government was generally not intent on developing Taiwan. It restricted Han Chinese emigration to Taiwan and strictly forbade Han Chinese from entering indigenous areas. But these rules were not enforced strictly.

        In this period, more and more land came under cultivation, and import-export trade flourished. Merchant guilds were formed in trading ports.

        However, there were many political and social problems. Civil unrest and communal fighting were not infrequent. On the other hand, religion and education helped to maintain harmony. Villagers often built temples to guardian deities and established religious organizations . Such communal activities contributed a sense of unity. Further, official and private schools were established to develop education and culture.

 

5-1  Political Developments

Jheng¡¦s Surrender to the Ching; Dispute about Taiwan¡¦s Incorporation into the Empire

        Jheng Jing died in 1681. His eldest son Jheng Kezang succeeded but was killed soon after. Another son of Jheng Jing, Jheng Keshuang, came to the throne. Jheng Keshuang was too young to take power. His meddlesome officials caused political instability.

        In 1683 (Kangsi Year 22, Ching dynasty), Shih Lang, formerly loyal to Jheng Chenggong, was authorized by the Ching emperor to take Taiwan by force. The confrontation took place at Penghu. Jheng¡¦s forces suffered a terrible defeat. Jheng Keshuang surrendered soon thereafter.

        Ching Emperor Shengzu and his ministers thought Taiwan merely a small undeveloped island that represented an immediate financial burden. They planned to move all the Han Chinese immigrants back to the mainland and leave Taiwan outside of Ching territory. However, Shih Lang argued that despite the potential financial burden, Taiwan should be kept for its fertile soil and strategic position. In 1684, the Emperor followed this advice and opted to keep Taiwan.

 

Administrative Divisions of Taiwan

        After the Ching government made the decision to retain Taiwan, it established Taiwan Prefecture, which included the island of Taiwan and Penghu and was under the jurisdiction of Fuchien Province. Under Taiwan Prefecture there were three counties: Taiwan, Fongshan, and Jhuluo. The head of a prefecture is called a prefect; the head of a county is called a magistrate. The prefect and magistrates were responsible for administering Taiwan.

        In the following decades, many immigrants arrived from Fuchien and Guangdong provinces. Han Chinese settlements in Taiwan expanded. In 1721, there was an uprising, led by Jhu Yiguei.[1] This rebellion demanded the Ching government¡¦s attention. The Ching government felt there was a need for new administrative divisions. By 1727, during the Yongjheng reign period of Emperor Shihzong, two sub-prefectures and one county had been added. Territory in the north of Jhuluo County was carved away to form Changhua County, which lies between the Huwei River and Dajia River; Danshuei Sub-prefecture was established to the north of Dajia River; another sub-prefecture was set up on Penghu.

        Another sub-prefecture was added at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Kavalan¡Xpresent-day Yilan¡Xwas by this time inhabited by tens of thousands of Han Chinese. Harassed by pirates, these immigrants asked the Ching government to establish an administration in Kavalan for the sake of public safety. In 1811, the Ching government established Kavalan Sub-prefecture, headed by a sub-prefect.

 

Passive Rule

        Ching government did not have an overall plan for Taiwan. Its only requirement was that Taiwan should not again become a base for sedition. To meet this requirement, the Ching government prohibited immigration to Taiwan to all but bachelors possessing a Taiwan Entry Permit. However, this immigration restriction was not always strictly enforced. Illegal immigration was common.

        As for the indigenous people, the Ching government¡¦s attitude was laissez-faire, let them be. Only in the event of revolt did the Ching use force. The Ching did, however, separate the Han Chinese from the indigenous peoples. Places close to mountains were reserved for indigenous people. Han Chinese were not allowed to cultivate beyond the official borders separating Han from indigenous land. Moreover, intermarriage between Han and indigene was outlawed. In 1766, the state appointed two special magistrates to mediate between the Han Chinese and the plains aborigines. There was a Special Indigenous Magistrate for the north and another for the south. However, Han settlers continued cultivating indigenous lands surreptitiously. Indigenes lost land gradually. Their lives were greatly affected.

 

5-2 Economic Activities

Cultivation

        In the Ching era, cultivation and settlement farming was one of the most important economic activities. Land was divided into three categories: indigenous land, private land, and unclaimed land. If Han farmers wanted to cultivate indigenous land, they had to pay a rent to the indigenes. To cultivate unclaimed land, they needed a cultivation permit and had to pay a regular tax once cultivation was completed. It cost a lot of money to start cultivation of indigenous land or unclaimed land. This is why many farmers pooled their resources and engaged in cooperative cultivation.

        Han farmers also acquired lands by quietly occupying unclaimed lands or by taking indigene land by force or trick, particularly in the early nineteenth century.

 

Irrigation

        The main crops in Taiwan were paddy rice and sugar cane. Rice cultivation is water-intensive and so irrigation became a concern.

        Water for irrigation mainly comes from natural ponds, manmade ponds and irrigation canals. The amount of water contained in ponds was limited and insufficient for extensive irrigation. Consequently, from the early eighteenth century, many large irrigation systems were constructed. Famous ones are the Caogong Canal in Fongshan, the Babao Canal in Changhua, the Maowushu Canal in Taichung, and the Liugong Canal in Taipei. These canals irrigated huge areas of farmland, from one thousand to thousands of hectares each. Those who used the water from the canals had to pay a fee called water rent. The economic benefit was enormous. It was now possible to reap two harvests annually. Naturally, productivity increased.

 

Commerce

        After the Jheng government was defeated, the Ching government permitted trade between Taiwan, coastal China, Japan, and later, Southeast Asia. The expansion in land cultivation increased production of crops like cane sugar and rice. But some commodities still had to be imported. Taiwan was again a hub of international trade. Trade with China was the most prosperous. Rice, cane sugar, deer skin, and dried deer meat were among the exports; imports were fabrics, medicine, and other commodities.

        In the first half of the eighteenth century, prosperous trade prompted merchants operating in the same areas or dealing in the same goods to form jiao or merchant guilds. For example, the North Jiao in Tainan was formed by merchants who traded with northern Chinese cities like Tianjin, Yantai, and Shanghai. The South Jiao in Tainan was formed by merchants who traded with Siamen, Jhangjhou, and Cyuanjhou. There was also a Sugar Jiao and a Cloth Jiao. These merchant guilds became very common. They could be found in commercial areas like Tainan, Lugang, and Bangka (present-day Wanhua in Taipei City).

 

5-3 Society, Culture and Education

Social Structure

In the Ching Era, more and more Han Chinese immigrated to Taiwan. They tended to group together. This communal behavior was motivated by basic human desires: Han immigrants sought peaceful lives in a foreign land. Han immigrants from the same village in China often settled down together in the same village in Taiwan. The villagers frequently named their new villages after their home villages in China. Religion helped draw immigrants together to build temples and organize regular rituals to the spirits or the ancestors. Temples became the belief and activity-centers of immigrant society. People from the same place in China worshipped the same guardian gods. For example, immigrants from Jhangjhou worshipped Kaijhang Shengwang, ¡§the sage king founder of Jhangjhou,¡¨ while people from Cyuanjhou worshipped Baosheng Dadi, ¡§the great life-protecting king.¡¨ Immigrants from the same culture also had common religious beliefs. For example, all Hakka immigrants worshipped the Kings of Three Mountains no matter where they came from in China or where they lived in Taiwan. Finally, there were deities worshipped by all Han Chinese, such as Mazu (Matsu), a goddess associated with the sea; General Guan Yu, a deified historical figure, and Tudi Gong, the Lord of the Earth.

People were also connected by blood relationships. Chinese people practice ancestor worship. The immigrants to Taiwan formed patriarchal clan associations. There were two types of clan association, those devoted to ancestors of the same surname in China, and those devoted to the ancestor pioneers who came to Taiwan.

The first type of clan organization was formed by immigrants who had the same surname. These people were not necessarily related by blood. They chose an eminent representative of their surname in China as a common ancestor and worshipped him. The ones who chose to join had to contribute to share the cost of worship.

The second type of clan association was formed by people from the same family who worshiped a common first ancestor to Taiwan. These people were really related to each other by blood. The cost of worship was covered by clan property.

 

Civil Commotion, Alliances and Feuds

        In the Ching Era, there were problems with corrupt officials and unprincipled troops. Unfortunately, the government had limited control and there was no state social welfare system. There were too many males and thus not enough females. People worried about mischief from ¡§wandering bachelors,¡¨ meaning men who were unmarried, landless, and without fixed occupation. Private alliances were common. There were many different socio-ethnic groups. It is no surprise, then, that civil unrest was frequent, that there were a lot of clashes. Some clashes were feuds, while others were revolts against the government. The most famous three uprisings were organized by Jhu Yiguei, Lin Shuangwun[2], and Dai Chaochun.[3]

        Feuds, usually fought with weapons, mostly occurred between alliances of different local groups. Sometimes they occurred between clans or between members of different occupations. In the early Ching era, feuds were usually between people of different origins. For example, people from Fuchien Province fought with people from Guangdong Province. Among Fuchien people, those from Jhangjhou fought with those from Cyuanjhou.

 

Education

        In the Ching era, the main educational institutions included official Confucian academies, private colleges, charity schools, tribe schools, and home schools.

        After the Ching government brought Taiwan into its territory, it set up a prefectural academy and three county academies in Taiwan, Fongshan, and Jhuluo counties. These governmental academies aimed to cultivate government officials and teachers. The governmental academies managed Confucian Temples. They also directed and supervised students who had passed the first level of the imperial examinations. These students were known as Sioucai. Classes for the Sioucai were given on a monthly basis. Sioucai had to go to the academies for the monthly lessons or examinations and whenever the supervising directors of education visited. For Sioucai, the way to government positions was by taking the next two levels in the imperial examination system, first to become a Jyuren by passing the provincial examination (held in Fuchien) and then to become a prestigious Jinshih by passing the palace examination (held in Beijing).[4]

        Schools were established by the government, private institutions, or both. Charity schools were mostly established by the government, but later there were more private ones. Tribe schools were public schools for indigenous people. Home schools were mainly for children to learn reading and writing.

By the early Ching era, there were many colleges and schools in Taiwan. Most students aimed to pass the examinations and become officials. Many Taiwanese passed the imperial examinations in China and became Jyuren or Jinshih. Taiwan¡¦s educational system had made a lot of progress by the nineteenth century.